The Burning of Washington: When the British Burned Down the White House

On August 24, 1814, America’s capitol city was burned to the ground. Two years into a bloody war, the United Kingdom had gotten the upper hand against its former territory, attacking the heart of America and nearly taking the country with it. Throughout American history, the nation’s capitol has held strong. The White House and Congress were never attacked throughout both world wars, and even during the Civil War, during which the country’s greatest threat was its own citizens, Washington, D.C. was never attacked.

However, just a few decades into the country’s history, its democracy was nearly toppled.

Origins of the War of 1812 and the Road to Washington

The War of 1812, as it is known today, is a war whose causes are still being debated by historians. Throughout the 19th century, it was often referred to as the “Second War for Independence,” though this name is hardly accurate, as the British were not trying to reclaim the land they had lost after the colonies declared independence in 1776. According to the USS Constitution Museum, two major causes were the British orders-in-council, which limited America’s ability to trade with Europe, as well as impressment, which was the Royal Navy’s practice of taking seamen from American merchant vessels to fill out the crews of its own chronically undermanned warships.

Historian Alan Taylor goes so far as to call the conflict a civil war, as the young country still had many citizens loyal to the United Kingdom. Under President James Madison, who was also one of the country’s original founding fathers, the United States officially declared war on June 18, 1812. The following year, Madison named John Armstrong Jr., former Minister to France under Thomas Jefferson, to Secretary of War.

Armstrong quickly organized an attack on York, the capital of Upper Canada, today known as Toronto. On April 27, 1813, an American force attacked the town, overwhelming the city. Following the battle, soldiers looted York and committed arson before withdrawing several days later.

The attack on the capital angered the British, particularly because the city was of little strategic importance. One reason for the United Kingdom’s lackluster military during the War of 1812 was that they were fighting two wars at once, the other being against Napoleonic France. After Napoleon’s capture and exile in April 1814, the British were able to fully focus their military might on America.

The Battle of Bladensburg and the Collapse of Washington’s Defenses

John Armstrong had insisted to President Madison that the British would avoid attacking the capitol, as it was strategically unimportant, seemingly unaware of his actions the previous year. Nonetheless, Madison designated the area around Washington and Baltimore as a Military District, appointing Brigadier General William H. Winder as its commander.

Winder suggested to Armstrong to call up militia in anticipation of an attack, but Armstrong denied his request. That August, the United Kingdom sent Rear Admiral George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross to lead a fleet into Chesapeake Bay in Maryland. Both men had fought in the Napoleonic Wars, with Ross having suffered a severe neck injury during the Battle of Orthez.

After landing at Benedict, alongside the Patuxent River, their forces marched north up to Bladensburg, east of Washington. On August 24, 1814, they met the American forces led by Winder, as well as Secretary of State James Monroe. What ensued was described by historian Daniel Walker Howe as “the most humiliating episode in American history.”

While the American soldiers had superior numbers, 6,000 soldiers to Robert Ross’s 4,500, they were also inexperienced and disorganized. The attack came seemingly out of nowhere, and while the Americans fought with a sense of patriotism, trying their hardest to defend their country from foreign invaders, ultimately, they were overwhelmed and forced to fall back. President Madison witnessed the battle firsthand.

The opposition newspaper Federal Republican would say the president was “the first to fly,” while other reports said he waited to learn the outcome of the battle before returning to Washington. Either way, he retreated, and would never spend another night in the White House.

Dolley Madison’s Flight and the Rescue of the Washington Portrait

While the Battle of Bladensburg raged, first lady Dolley Madison had been preparing a dinner for the president back at the White House. Dolley was a socialite who organized events at the home, and was the first wife of a president to assume the role of the House’s hostess. In fact, she had even been the hostess during Thomas Jefferson’s presidency.

As her servant Paul Jennings recalled the events of that evening, “Mrs. Madison ordered dinner to be ready at 3 as usual.” It must be noted here that Jennings and other servants at the White House were slaves.

While the Madisons treated their slaves relatively well, they were still slaves nonetheless. Citizens in the city had heard the sounds of battle off in the distance, hoping for the best once the firing stopped. To their dismay, Secretary of War John Armstrong soon arrived with his men, saying, “Fly, fly!

The ruffians are at hand. If you cannot get away yourselves, for God’s sake send off your wives and daughters, for the ruffians are at hand!” His words were no exaggeration, as Rear Admiral George Cockburn had a reputation for burning and looting.

Days earlier, the citizens had been living peacefully, but now they had to flee the city, for their lives were at stake. Dolley Madison resisted leaving her home as long as she could, having promised her husband that she would be waiting for him when he had left two days earlier. It was only after “two messengers, covered with dust” informed her of the outcome of the battle that she decided to pack up and leave.

She had her servants pack up a wagon full of precious White House belongings. Of particular note was a large picture of America’s first president, George Washington. The painting, having been painted back in 1800, was a national icon.

Dolley Madison ordered her staff, “Save that painting! Save that painting!” It was difficult to unscrew it from the wall, but they managed to break the frame and transport the picture to safety.

Another object reported to have been evacuated that night was James Madison’s crystal flute, made by Claude Laurent of Paris in 1813, though there is no official documentation on the items that were moved. Once they had secured as much as they could, Dolley and her servants fled the White House. Soon after, President Madison briefly stopped by the home, having one of his attendants transport Dolley’s pet macaw to the house of the French Ambassador for safety.

What few families were still left in the city were quickly evacuated by the army. Commandant Thomas Tingey of the US Navy Yard made the order to destroy as much of the Yard as his men could, specifically, “everything that may be valuable and useful to the enemy.” Before the British had even entered the city, the fires had already started.

A City on Fire: The Destruction of the Capitol and White House

When Robert Ross and George Cockburn arrived, what followed were acts of destruction that divided opinion among even their own staff. Any chance of negotiation with America died when shots were fired from a house south of the city. Ross’s horse was killed instantly, along with a British soldier.

Troops promptly stormed the house and burned it down. The destruction of Washington had begun. For the first time in American history, and the only time for centuries, the United States Capitol Building was overrun.

For a moment, the British took in the design of the building, taking note of the bald eagle carved over the Speaker’s chair. An official described the eagle as “looking towards the skies, emblematical, it is to be presumed, of the rising greatness of the young nation.” The story goes that George Cockburn sat down in the chair and asked his men, “Shall this harbour of Yankee democracy be burned?”

To which his men yelled “Aye!” They soon piled all the chairs, furniture, library books and papers, and set it ablaze. Not long after, the entire building was on fire, including the Library of Congress.

Cockburn took a memento for himself — a book with the words “The President of the United States” stamped on the cover, which contained copies of the government’s receipts and payments for the year 1810. The book was not given back to the Library of Congress until 1940, over a century later. The night sky over the city began to glow red, due to the fires at Congress and the Navy Yard.

To some British, the destruction of the printing presses and the national archives was a step too far. Citizens who had stayed in the city to care for loved ones watched in horror as their capital burned. Yet, there was also a sense of dignity among segments of the British.

Some soldiers politely knocked on the doors of homes that had not been evacuated, requesting bread and wine to feed themselves, as American citizen James Ewell put it, “conducting themselves with the utmost good behavior.” Ewell would wind up speaking to George Cockburn himself, complaining that his home had been looted by the less considerate soldiers. Cockburn showed no sympathy, but when General Robert Ross overheard the conversation between the two men, he asked Ewell which house was his, so that he could order a sentinel to guard it.

His home had been chosen by Ross as a temporary headquarters during the night, as they thought it had been abandoned. The two made an amicable arrangement, as Ewell allowed the general to stay at his home that night, with Ross agreeing to cause “as little trouble as possible.” Many Americans would consider Ewell a traitor for his actions that night, though he hoped treating Ross with respect would help mend the divide between the two nations.

Ewell was not the only American who was able to speak amicably with the British. When officers talked of burning down the Washington bank, a woman convinced them to spare it, as the fire would have spread to nearby homes. Ross himself worked hard to make sure his men were not accused of looting, going so far as to stop American looters from taking advantage of the chaos.

Finally, Cockburn and Ross made their way down Pennsylvania Avenue to the White House. Upon going inside, their men smelled the food and drink that had been prepared for Madison earlier that day, laid out on the table. They had not eaten since that morning, and happily sat down to eat a meal fit for a president.

After the White House had been stripped of its valuables, supposedly including a portrait of Dolley Madison — evidently the first lady had deemed the picture of George Washington to be of greater value — Cockburn and Ross set about lighting America’s most famous building ablaze. While in the city, Ross had taken great care not to harm those who had shown no resistance, but this time, he was ready to get revenge for what happened at York in Upper Canada. The fire spread quickly.

One of the soldiers noted he “Felt sorrow when witnessing such magnificent buildings demolished.” It was a terrifying moment for American citizens, yet in some ways, they had gotten off easy. After all, Ross had done his best to spare civilians, his main targets being the government buildings.

While the outer stone walls were not combustible, the inside of the White House was destroyed. It rained the following morning, putting out the fire and sparing the building from even more damage. The next day, a horseman rode into town, wildly firing his pistols at British troops.

The man was John Lewis, who happened to be George Washington’s nephew. Lewis had been a seafarer who had been forcibly impressed by the British and made to fight against his own country. Now, he was on a suicide mission, firing at whoever he could before being gunned down dead in the street.

Ross and Cockburn continued to destroy what they could, at times having to debate whether to burn or spare a building. The War Office was burned, while the Patent Office was spared. Finally, they ordered their troops to exit the city in order to prepare for their next target: Baltimore.

The Battle of Baltimore and the Birth of the Star-Spangled Banner

While the burning of Washington was no doubt a victory for the British, Ross and Cockburn also recognized that it was not the killing blow that they needed. With America’s leadership scattered and humiliated, they began preparing for an assault on the nearby Fort McHenry near Baltimore, Maryland, with the hopes of winning the war once and for all. The fort, named after American statesman and Scots-Irish immigrant James McHenry, was built in 1798.

Located southeast of the city of Baltimore, overlooking Chesapeake Bay, the subsequent battle would go down in history as one of the defining moments of American culture. Fingers were pointed among James Madison’s administration. For many, Secretary of War John Armstrong was to blame for the loss at Bladensburg and the subsequent burning of the nation’s capital.

In the days following a meeting with Madison, Armstrong resigned. Secretary of State James Monroe would take over his responsibilities for the remainder of the war. The British prepared for the attack at Baltimore, but Ross had his reservations about the plan’s success.

After all, the Americans were now cornered, and would rally around this next battle. British troops, as roused as they were from their recent victories, were still tired from the battles, and needed time to rest before their next attack. Baltimoreans would bolster their defenses the best they could while they had the chance.

A year prior to the battle, in 1813, a young woman named Mary Young Pickersgill had been commissioned to make two oversized American flags, the larger of which was the Great Garrison Flag, which was made to be “a flag so large that the British would have no difficulty seeing it from a distance.” The flag would be flown over Fort McHenry during the battle. For Robert Ross, however, he would not live to see this coming showdown between the two nations.

He and Cockburn advanced their troops up North Point, east of Baltimore, and Ross was shot dead on his horse. Ross, who had fought in battles with both Napoleonic France and America, died on September 12, 1814, just weeks after burning America’s capitol city. That same day, the assault on Fort McHenry began.

East of Baltimore, forces clashed at North Point, while Fort McHenry was assaulted by the British naval fleet led by Alexander Cochrane. For the next 25 hours, the fort was bombarded by British ships, rockets lighting up the night sky. American poet Francis Scott Key witnessed the assault on Baltimore that night, having been imprisoned on a British ship.

He watched the battle unfold, and was inspired to write a poem that would become the most famous song in American history. The lyrics of the Star-Spangled Banner take on new meaning when understood in the original context in which they were written: “And the rockets’ red glare, / The bombs bursting in air / Gave proof through the night / That our flag was still there.” After more than a full day of fighting, the British were forced to retreat, having run low on ammunition, nor having made any progress in capturing the city.

The battle was a resounding American victory, having successfully defended their country during the darkest moment in its history. Their capitol may have been burned to the ground, but their country lived on.

The Treaty of Ghent and the War’s Political Aftermath

On December 24th, 1814, the Treaty of Ghent was signed, signaling the end of the war. After two years of fighting, neither the United States nor the United Kingdom had gained anything. Parties on both sides were relieved that the war was over.

It took a month for news of the treaty to reach everyone involved, and the last major battle of the War of 1812 happened after the truce had been declared. On January 8th, 1815, General Andrew Jackson defended the city of New Orleans from British attack. To this day, historians still debate the importance of Jackson’s victory.

Would the British have honored their treaty if they had won the battle? Or would their victory have emboldened them to disregard it and make another attempt at overthrowing America? Prior to the Burning of Washington, Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr. and Secretary of State James Monroe were both eyeing the opportunity to become James Madison’s successor to the presidency.

After Armstrong’s perceived failure to protect the capitol, the question of who would be the next president was no longer in question. In 1817, James Monroe was sworn in as America’s fifth president, a position he would hold for the next eight years. Twenty years after the event, James Madison would pass away on June 28, 1836, at the age of 85.

His wife, Dolley, would be considered among historians to be among the best first ladies in history for her bravery that night. She passed away a decade after her husband, on July 12, 1849.

A Lasting Legacy: From Forgotten War to National Anthem

After the War of 1812, the United States and the United Kingdom would never go to war again. Instead, a century later, the two countries were allies during the two world wars. In March 2012, President Barack Obama, who also happens to be James Madison’s third cousin, nine times removed, welcomed British Prime Minister David Cameron to the White House.

At a press conference, Obama said, “It’s now been almost 200 years since the British came here to the White House under somewhat different circumstances. They really made an impression. They lit up the place.”

To which Cameron responded, “You’ve got the place a little better defended today. You’re clearly not taking any chances with the Brits this time.” Francis Scott Key’s poem, “The Defence of Fort M’Henry,” was later set to the tune of “To Anacreon in Heaven,” a drinking song named after the Greek poet Anacreon.

In 1931, the song became officially recognized as the national anthem of the United States. In 2022, the musician Lizzo made headlines when she played James Madison’s crystal flute on stage, saying, “There was a fire… and the only two things that were saved were a portrait of George Washington and this crystal flute right here.” While historians do believe the flute was saved from the fire that night, she certainly left out a lot of context.

Since 1814, only two attempts have been made to strike at the United States government directly. One was on September 11th, 2001, when four airplanes were hijacked by terrorists. Two hit the World Trade Center towers in New York City, a third hit the Pentagon building in Washington, and while the fourth plane’s target is not known with certainty, as it crashed in Pennsylvania, its flight path suggests it was headed toward the United States Capitol.

The other attempt on the Federal government was on January 6th, 2021, when protesters tried to stop the certification of Joe Biden’s election, falsely claiming the election had been rigged against then-president Donald Trump, becoming the only instance since 1814 when the Capitol Building had been overrun. Surprisingly, the Burning of Washington has become mostly forgotten by American citizens. Perhaps it is due to the War of 1812 being glossed over in its history textbooks.

The war was unpopular and ended in a stalemate, with neither side having gained much at all. It was a humiliating episode of United States history, one that the country would have preferred to forget. While the White House has undergone a lot of renovations over the years, parts of the building still bear the scars from that night.

As for the painting of George Washington, in 2009, descendants of Paul Jennings, the slave who helped Dolley Madison save the painting, were invited to see the portrait for themselves. The painting remains in the White House to this day.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why did the British burn Washington, D.C. in 1814?

The British burned Washington as retaliation for the American attack on York, the capital of Upper Canada (now Toronto), on April 27, 1813, during which American soldiers looted and burned the city. After Napoleon’s defeat freed British forces to focus on the American war, Rear Admiral George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross led an expedition into Chesapeake Bay, defeated American forces at the Battle of Bladensburg, and proceeded to destroy the Capitol, White House, and other government buildings.

What happened at the Battle of Bladensburg?

On August 24, 1814, British forces under Major General Robert Ross defeated an American force led by Brigadier General William H. Winder and Secretary of State James Monroe. Despite having superior numbers — roughly 6,000 Americans to Ross’s 4,500 — the American troops were inexperienced and disorganized and were routed. Secretary of War John Armstrong had refused to call up militia despite warnings, and his failure to prepare the capital’s defenses led directly to the disaster and his subsequent resignation.

What did Dolley Madison save from the White House?

As British forces approached, First Lady Dolley Madison directed her staff to save several White House treasures. Most notably, she insisted they rescue the large 1800 portrait of George Washington, which had to be broken out of its frame before being transported to safety. James Madison’s crystal flute — made by Claude Laurent of Paris in 1813 — is also reported to have been evacuated that night, though there is no official documentation of all the items removed.

How did the Battle of Baltimore and Fort McHenry inspire the national anthem?

After burning Washington, British forces advanced on Fort McHenry near Baltimore. The fort was bombarded by the British naval fleet for over 25 hours, with rockets and bombs lighting the night sky. American poet Francis Scott Key witnessed the assault while imprisoned on a British ship, and upon seeing the American flag still flying at dawn, he was inspired to write the poem that became the Star-Spangled Banner. The British ultimately retreated, marking a decisive American victory.

How did the War of 1812 end, and what were its consequences?

The Treaty of Ghent, signed December 24, 1814, ended the war with neither side gaining territory. The last major battle — Andrew Jackson’s defense of New Orleans — occurred on January 8, 1815, after the truce had already been declared. The war effectively ended Secretary of War Armstrong’s presidential ambitions and elevated Secretary of State James Monroe, who was sworn in as the fifth president in 1817. The United States and the United Kingdom never went to war again after 1815.